choline

Foods Richest in choline

About choline

Basic description

Choline is one of the newest nutrients to be added to the list of human vitamins. It was only added to the list of required nutrients by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 1998. While the NAS does not officially recognize choline as a vitamin specifically belonging to the B-complex family of vitamins, it is officially recognized as a required nutrient that you need in your everyday meal plan.

It was once believed that endogenous synthesis from other nutrients provided sufficient choline. More recent research using choline-depleted diets has demonstrated that dietary intake is necessary for adequate status.

The optimal daily choline intake remains an open question in nutrition. The current National Academy of Sciences standards listed in the Public Health Recommendations section provide a well-founded starting point.

Choline is widely distributed across food groups. Eggs rank as an excellent source, and 10 very good and 15 good choline sources offer alternatives for those who avoid eggs.

Role in health support

Methylation

Many signaling processes in the human body involve transferring a methyl group (-CH3) from one molecule to another. This is one of the most basic processes of life, and no cellular organism could survive without the process of methylation. Building DNA, exchanging signals in the brain, and detoxification in your liver are just some of the important processes dependent on methylation. Deficits in methylation have been linked to memory loss and cardiovascular disease.

Perhaps speaking to the central importance of methylation in normal body function, there are a number of different nutrients that are important for this process to work smoothly. The most important are folate and its partners vitamins B6 and B12.

Choline functions as a methyl donor in this process. When folate is insufficient to sustain adequate methylation, choline can compensate by donating methyl groups via the betaine pathway.

Membrane structure

Choline is an essential nutrient in the production of phosphatidylcholine, one of the most important structural building blocks of a living cell. Its unique soap-like structure helps to keep the membrane fluid, yet mostly impermeable.

Given importance of phosphatidylcholine to all cellular forms, it’s not surprising that we find choline so widespread in different foods. In most diets, phophatidylcholine is the single most common form of choline provided by foods.

Nervous system activity

Choline is the backbone of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system, controlling heart rate and gastrointestinal motility. Every voluntary muscle contraction also requires acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction.

Even in medically supervised studies using severely choline-restricted diets, these acetylcholine-dependent functions do not break down, as the body prioritizes acetylcholine synthesis from available choline.

Summary of food sources

Choline is broadly distributed across both plant and animal foods.

A single egg provides one-quarter to one-third of the daily intake requirement (the range reflects different recommendations for males and females). Over 99% of an egg’s choline is in the yolk; whites contribute negligibly.

The top eight choline-containing foods in the rating system are all animal foods. For those avoiding eggs but eating other animal products, the remaining options still provide substantial choline. Three seafoods (shrimp, scallops, and cod) qualify as very good sources.

Plant-based diets can still supply adequate choline. At least 15 vegetables rank as good or very good sources, with collard greens, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, Swiss chard, cauliflower, and asparagus each providing over 10% of the 425 mg daily recommendation per serving.

The average American diet provides roughly 100 mg of additional choline per day from food additives, primarily soy lecithin used as an emulsifier in processed foods. This contributes about one-fourth of the recommended 425 mg daily intake but cannot substitute for food-derived choline.

Nutrient rating chart

Introduction to nutrient rating system chart

Read more background information and details of our rating system

WHF ranked as quality sources of
choline

Food

Serving
Size

Cals

Amount
(mg)

DRI/DV
(%)

Nutrient
Density

World’s
Healthiest
Foods Rating

Eggs

1 each

77.5

146.90

35

8.0

excellent

Shrimp

4 oz

134.9

153.54

36

4.8

very good

Scallops

4 oz

125.9

125.53

30

4.2

very good

Cod

4 oz

96.4

90.38

21

4.0

very good

Collard Greens

1 cup

62.7

72.96

17

4.9

very good

Brussels Sprouts

1 cup

56.2

63.34

15

4.8

very good

Broccoli

1 cup

54.6

62.56

15

4.9

very good

Swiss Chard

1 cup

35.0

50.23

12

6.1

very good

Cauliflower

1 cup

28.5

48.48

11

7.2

very good

Asparagus

1 cup

39.6

46.98

11

5.0

very good

Spinach

1 cup

41.4

35.46

8

3.6

very good

Chicken

4 oz

187.1

96.73

23

2.2

good

Turkey

4 oz

166.7

94.57

22

2.4

good

Tuna

4 oz

147.4

88.00

21

2.5

good

Salmon

4 oz

157.6

81.65

19

2.2

good

Beef

4 oz

175.0

73.82

17

1.8

good

Sardines

3.20 oz

188.7

68.04

16

1.5

good

Green Peas

1 cup

115.7

40.91

10

1.5

good

Cabbage

1 cup

43.5

32.10

8

3.1

good

Mushrooms, Shiitake

0.50 cup

40.6

26.68

6

2.8

good

Green Beans

1 cup

43.8

21.13

5

2.0

good

Bok Choy

1 cup

20.4

20.57

5

4.3

good

Mushrooms, Crimini

1 cup

15.8

15.91

4

4.3

good

Summer Squash

1 cup

36.0

14.22

3

1.7

good

Miso

1 TBS

34.2

12.41

3

1.5

good

Tomatoes

1 cup

32.4

12.06

3

1.6

good

World’s Healthiest
Foods Rating

Rule

excellent

DRI/DV>=75% OR
Density>=7.6 AND DRI/DV>=10%

very good

DRI/DV>=50% OR
Density>=3.4 AND DRI/DV>=5%

good

DRI/DV>=25% OR
Density>=1.5 AND DRI/DV>=2.5%

Impact of cooking, storage and processing

Given the relatively small amount of research on choline, we do not have as strong a body of evidence to demonstrate the magnitude of changes with cooking or storage. Still, at this time, we can say that choline appears to be a fairly stable nutrient to heat and storage compared with many other vitamins. We do not currently believe that you need to alter your food storage habits or cooking techniques in order to obtain substantial amounts of choline from your foods.

Risk of dietary deficiency

Estimates of average American adult choline intake range from 700 to 1000 mg per day, which exceeds the 425 mg recommended daily intake. These estimates carry uncertainty because choline content is incompletely characterized in many foods.

A sample daily menu illustrates how choline accumulates: poached eggs over spinach and mushrooms at breakfast provides at least 350 mg; a plant-based lunch of navy bean soup with cantaloupe adds over 100 mg; and scallops with steamed broccoli at dinner contributes at least 200 mg. The total exceeds 650 mg, well beyond the 425 mg target. Actual choline content may be higher because some ingredients lack formal choline quantification.

Other circumstances that might contribute to deficiency

The only circumstance documented in clinical studies that produces clear choline deficiency symptoms is prolonged tube feeding, a medical necessity in certain situations but unrelated to typical dietary patterns.

Relationship with other nutrients

As noted above, the process of methylation is very important for the brain, for cancer prevention, and for reproduction, among other things. Choline is one of several methyl donors in the body and can compensate when other methylation cofactors like folate and S-adenosylmethionine are low. Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) is required for acetylcholine synthesis from choline in nerve terminals. Neither pantothenic acid nor folate is commonly deficient in the U.S. diet.

Risk of dietary toxicity

At intake amounts exceeding several grams per day, choline can cause significant drops in blood pressure. Also, intake of excessive choline can cause a fishy body odor due to a metabolite formed during excretion. The National Academy of Sciences has established 3.5 grams per day as aTolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for choline. This amount would almost certainly require intake of choline supplements and would be highly unlikely to be provided by food intake alone.

Disease checklist

• Pregnancy support
• High homocysteine
• Depression
• Bipolar disorder
• Memory loss / cognitive decline
• Gallstones
• High cholesterol

Public health recommendations

In 1998, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) established Adequate Intake (AI) standards for choline. These AIs are as follows:

• 0-6 months: 125 mg
• 6-12 months: 150 mg
• 1-3 years: 200 mg
• 4-8 years: 250 mg
• 9-13 years: 375 years
• 14-18 years, female: 400
• 14-19 years, male: 550 mg
• 19+ years, female: 425 mg
• 19+ years, male: 550 mg
• Pregnant women: 450 mg
• Lactating women: 550 mg

The NAS also established a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 3.5 grams per day for most adults. While it would be possible to eat more than this occasionally, it would be very hard to do. None of the reported cases of toxicity related to high doses of choline cited by the FNB were from dietary intake alone.

The WHF recommended daily intake for choline uses the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) standard of 425 milligrams for women 19 and older.

Description

How it functions

Deficiency symptoms

Toxicity symptoms

Factors that affect function

Nutrient interactions

Health conditions

Food sources

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References

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